Promethazine

Description

The carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer system plays an important role in regulating the extracellular pH allergy treatment sacramento promethazine 25 mg purchase with mastercard. The carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer system has a limited capacity to resist changes in pH, but it plays an essential role in the control of pH by both the respiratory system and the kidneys. Hemoglobin in red blood cells is one of the most important intracellular proteins. Other intracellular molecules associated with nucleic acids, such as histone proteins, also act as buffers. Consequently, as the H+ concentration increases, more H+ binds to the functional groups; when the H+ concentration decreases, H+ is released from the functional groups (table 27. Buffer Systems Buffers (bferz; see chapter 2) prevent extreme changes in the pH of a solution. Buffers within body fluids stabilize the pH by binding to excess H+ or by releasing H+. Three important buffer systems function together to prevent major changes in the pH of body fluids: the carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer system; the protein buffer system, such as hemoglobin and plasma proteins; and the phosphate buffer system (table 27. Phosphate Buffer System the phosphate buffer system is an important intracellular buffer system. In this way, these two ions fluctuate between gaining and losing H+ ions, which helps balance the pH (table 27. Compare the capacity and rate at which the respiratory system and kidneys control body fluid pH. Describe how a buffer works when H+ is added to a solution or when it is removed from a solution. Therefore, it plays an exceptionally important role in controlling the pH of extracellular fluid. Intracellular proteins and plasma proteins form a large pool of protein molecules that can act as buffer molecules. Other intracellular molecules, such as histone proteins and nucleic acids, also act as buffers. Components of the phosphate buffer system are low in the extracellular fluids, compared with the other buffer systems, but it is an important intracellular buffer system. Observe the responses to a decrease in blood pH outside the normal range by following the red arrows. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, found in red blood cells and on the surface of blood vessel epithelium, catalyzed the reaction. This enzyme does not influence equilibrium but accelerates the rate at which the reaction proceeds in either direction, so that equilibrium is achieved quickly. Decreases in body fluid pH, regardless of the cause, stimulate neurons in the respiratory center in the brainstem to increase the rate and depth of ventilation. Increases in body fluid pH, regardless of the cause, inhibit neurons in the respiratory center in the brainstem to decrease the rate and depth of ventilation. This results in an elevated H+ concentration, and the pH decreases toward its normal range. An antiport system then exchanges H+ for Na+ across the apical membrane of the cells. This combination removes H+ from the extracellular fluid and increases extracellular pH. This allows the amount of extracellular H+ to increase; as a consequence, the pH of the body fluids decreases toward its normal range. Although the tubule cells respond directly to H+, the hormone aldosterone can also alter the H+ permeability of the tubules. Aldosterone increases the rate of Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion by the kidneys, but in high concentrations aldosterone also stimulates H+ secretion. Elevated aldosterone levels, such as those occurring in patients with Cushing syndrome, can therefore elevate body fluid pH above normal (alkalosis).

Pimpinella magna (Pimpinella). Promethazine.

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List and describe the functions of the hormones secreted by the testes and ovaries allergy medicine 3 year old order cheap promethazine. Predict 11 Explain why long-distance runners may not have much of a "kick" left when they try to sprint to the finish line. Describe the hormonal effects that occur immediately after a meal to cause nutrients to move into cells and be stored. What occurs hormonally 1­2 hours after a meal that causes stored materials to be released and used for energy During exercise, how does sympathetic nervous system activity regulate blood glucose levels Name five hormones that interact to ensure that the brain and the muscles have adequate energy sources during exercise, and explain the role of each. All aspects of reproduction, including puberty, menstruation, gamete formation, and pregnancy, are under control of reproductive hormones. Reproductive hormones are secreted primarily from the ovaries, testes, placenta, and pituitary gland (table 18. Testosterone regulates the production of sperm cells by the testes and the development and maintenance of male reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics. As obesity rates have increased, so have the rates of obesity-related health conditions such as insulin resistance, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. There are two main reasons for obesity, diet/lifestyle and gut bacteria, and it seems these two may be related. The "typical" Western diet consists of frequent large meals high in refined grains, red meat, saturated fats, and sugary drinks. This is in sharp contrast to healthier diets rich in whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts that help with weight control and prevention of chronic disease. From an evolutionary perspective, our bodies are adapted to conserve energy because food sources were scarce for ancient humans. Combined with a reduction in physical activity and less sleep for many Americans, the Western diet and lifestyle can lead to obesity and poor health. Comparisons between the gut microbiota of lean versus obese individuals seem to suggest the possibility of an important link between gut microbiota and our weight. The human gut, like other animals, is densely populated with microbiota consisting of at least 100 trillion microbial cells divided into approximately 1000 different species. The majority (90%) of human gut bacteria fall into two groups: Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Lean people have more Bacteroidetes than Firmicutes, while the opposite is true for obese people. We now know that gut microbiota affect nutrient processing and absorption, hormonal regulation of nutrient use by body cells, and even our hunger level. Studies of humans on carbohydrate-restricted or fat-restricted diets demonstrated that after weight loss, the number of Bacteroidetes ("lean person" bacteria) increased, while the number of Firmicutes ("obese person" bacteria) decreased. Obese individuals store the absorbed energy in adipose tissue, which contributes to weight gain. Furthermore, experiments with germ-free mice-mice lacking normal gut microbiota- have demonstrated just how important normal gut bacteria are for homeostasis. In the absence of normal gut microbiota, malfunctions in germfree mice are widespread and significant. For example, when germ-free mice received gut microbiota transplants from normal mice, their body fat increased significantly to normal levels within 2 weeks, even though their diet and exercise level did not change. Studies have also shown that germ-free mice lack normal gastric immunity, but upon transplantation, their gastric immune system becomes functional. Germ-free mice also lack cell membrane proteins important for tight junction formation between the cells of the intestinal lining (see chapter 4). Without the normal microbiota, germ-free mice intestines are "leaky," meaning they could easily be penetrated by pathogens. Finally, germ-free mice display an enhanced stress response, which is substantially reduced upon implantation of gut microbiota. Overall, these experiments demonstrate that there is a much greater correlation among bacteria, gut health, obesity, and anxiety than ever before realized. Inflammation-promoting effects of an imbalanced gut microbiota are thought to induce obesity via promoting insulin resistance, a known autoimmune malfunction. This observation is supported by the reduction in diabetes symptoms after gastric bypass surgery when patients exhibit a major shift in gut microbiota populations.

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There are two types of sympathetic ganglia: sympathetic chain ganglia and collateral ganglia allergy forecast orlando 25 mg promethazine buy with mastercard. Sympathetic chain ganglia are located along the left and right sides of the vertebral column. These ganglia are connected to each other forming a chain, thus the name sympathetic chain. The sympathetic chain ganglia are also called paravertebral (alongside the vertebral column) ganglia because of their location. Although the sympathetic division originates in the thoracic and lumbar vertebral regions, the sympathetic chain ganglia extend into the cervical and sacral regions. The preganglionic cell bodies are in the lateral gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar parts of the spinal cord. The cell bodies of the postganglionic neurons are within the sympathetic chain ganglia or within collateral ganglia. Some axons synapse with a postganglionic neuron at the level of entry; others ascend or descend to other levels before synapsing. Each postganglionic axon exits the sympathetic chain through a gray ramus communicans and enters a spinal nerve. Preganglionic axon in a spinal nerve Preganglionic axon in a spinal nerve White ramus communicans Sympathetic chain ganglion Splanchnic nerve Adrenal gland Preganglionic axon Collateral ganglion Postganglionic axon White ramus communicans Sympathetic chain ganglion Splanchnic nerve Collateral ganglion Preganglionic axon Viscera (c) Preganglionic neurons do not synapse in the sympathetic chain ganglia, but exit in splanchnic nerves and extend to a collateral ganglion, where they synapse with postganglionic neurons. Axons of the postganglionic neurons pass through a gray ramus communicans and reenter a spinal nerve. Postganglionic axons are unmyelinated, thereby giving the gray ramus communicans its grayish color. The postganglionic axons then project through the spinal nerve to the skin and blood vessels of skeletal muscles. Preganglionic axons enter the sympathetic chain and synapse in a sympathetic chain ganglion at the same or a different level with postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic axons leaving the sympathetic chain ganglion form sympathetic nerves, which supply organs in the thoracic cavity. Some preganglionic axons enter sympathetic chain ganglia and, without synapsing, exit at the same or a different level to form splanchnic nerves. Those preganglionic axons extend to collateral ganglia, where they synapse with postganglionic neurons. Axons of the postganglionic neurons leave the collateral ganglia through small nerves that extend to effectors in the abdominopelvic cavity. Splanchnic nerves are different from the sympathetic nerves discussed earlier, in that splanchnic nerves are composed of preganglionic axons, whereas sympathetic nerves are composed of postganglionic axons. In the case of the adrenal glands, the axons of the preganglionic neurons do not synapse in sympathetic chain ganglia or in collateral ganglia. Instead, the axons pass through those ganglia and synapse with cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland. The adrenal medulla (me-dool) is the inner portion of the adrenal gland and consists of specialized cells derived during embryonic development from neural crest cells (see figure 13. Adrenal medullary cells are round, have no axons or dendrites, and are divided into two groups, depending on what substance they secrete. About 80% of the cells secrete epinephrine (epi-nefrin), also called adrenaline (-dren-lin), and about 20% secrete norepinephrine (nrep-i-nefrin), also called noradrenaline (nr-dren-lin). Stimulation of these cells by preganglionic axons causes the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. These substances circulate in the blood and affect all tissues having receptors to which they can bind. The general response to epinephrine and norepinephrine released from the adrenal medulla is to prepare the individual for physical activity. Secretions of the adrenal medulla are considered hormones because they are released into the bloodstream and travel some distance to the effectors (see chapters 17 and 18). What types of axons (preganglionic or postganglionic, myelinated or unmyelinated) are found in the white and gray rami communicantes Where do preganglionic axons synapse with the postganglionic neurons in spinal and sympathetic nerves

Syndromes

• Hair loss        
• Commonly has imaginary playmates
• Ultrasound of the head
• Weak immune system (such as patients with AIDS, cancer, or an organ transplant; receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy; or taking corticosteroid pills every day)
• Anemia (blood loss, poor nutrition, or underlying disease)
• Pulmonary fibrosis
• Discomfort that occurs at rest and does not easily go away when you take medicine
• Throat
• Muscle weakness
• Hormone level studies

Compliance of the Lungs and Thorax Compliance is a measure of the ease with which the lungs and thorax expand allergy shots boston 25 mg promethazine order with mastercard. The compliance of the lungs and thorax is the volume by which they increase for each unit of change in intraalveolar pressure. It is usually expressed in liters (volume of air) per mm Hg (pressure), and for a normal person the compliance of the lungs and thorax is 0. That is, for every 1 mm Hg change in intra-alveolar pressure, the volume changes by 0. A lower than normal compliance means that it is harder to expand the lungs and thorax. These include the deposition of inelastic fibers in lung tissue (pulmonary fibrosis), the collapse of the alveoli (infant respiratory distress syndrome and pulmonary edema), increased resistance to airflow caused by airway obstruction (asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer), and deformities of the thoracic wall that reduce its ability to expand and allow the thoracic volume to increase (kyphosis and scoliosis). Pulmonary diseases that result in decreased compliance can markedly affect the total amount of energy required Residual volume (1200 mL) 1000 Maximum expiration Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities Spirometry (sp-rom-tr) is the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory system, and a spirometer (sp-rom-ter) is the device used to measure these pulmonary volumes. The four pulmonary volumes and representative values for a young adult male are graphed in figure 23. Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after a normal inspiration (approximately 3000 mL at rest). Expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be forcefully expired after a normal expiration (approximately 1100 mL at rest). Residual volume is the volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and lungs after the most forceful expiration (approximately 1200 mL). Because the maximum volume of the respiratory system does not change from moment to moment, an increase in tidal volume causes a decrease in the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes. It is the amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration (approximately 3500 mL at rest). Functional residual capacity is the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume. Vital capacity is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the expiratory reserve volume. It is the maximum volume of air a person can expel from the respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration (approximately 4600 mL). Total lung capacity is the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume and the residual volume (approximately 5800 mL). Factors such as gender, age, body size, and physical conditioning cause variations in respiratory volumes and capacities from one individual to another. For example, the vital capacity of adult females is usually 20­25% less than that of adult males. The vital capacity reaches its maximum amount in young adults and gradually decreases in the elderly. Tall people usually have a greater vital capacity than short people, and thin people have a greater vital capacity than obese people. Well-trained athletes can have a vital capacity 30­40% above that of untrained people. In patients whose respiratory muscles are paralyzed by spinal cord injury or diseases such as poliomyelitis or muscular dystrophy, vital capacity can be reduced to values not consistent with survival (less than 500­1000 mL). The forced expiratory vital capacity is a simple and clinically important pulmonary test. The patient inspires maximally and then exhales maximally into a spirometer as rapidly as possible. In some conditions, the vital capacity may not be dramatically affected, but how rapidly air is expired can be greatly decreased. The structures of the respiratory system where gas exchange does not take place are collectively called the dead space: anatomical dead space and physiological dead space. It includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles.

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Usage: p.r.n.