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Description

Only the tunica media impotence vacuum pumps 100 mg kamagra gold with amex, which is the thickest of the three layers of the elastic arteries, is labeled on this image. Note that elastic lamellae, collagen fibrils, and blood vessels are present in the tunica adventitia. The flow of blood toward the heart causes the aortic and pulmonary valves to close. Continued elastic recoil then maintains continuous flow of blood away from the heart. The tunica intima of the elastic artery consists of endothelium, subendothelial connective tissue, and an inconspicuous internal elastic membrane. In forming the epithelial sheet, the cells are joined by tight junctions (zonulae occludentes) and gap junctions. Endothelial cells possess rod-like inclusions called Weibel-Palade bodies that are present in the cytoplasm. These specific endothelial organelles are electrondense structures and contain von Willebrand factor and P-selectin. Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein synthesized by arterial endothelial cells. The antibody to von Willebrand factor is commonly used as an immunohistochemical marker for · identification of endothelium-derived tumors. P-selectin is a cell adhesion molecule involved in the mechanism of neutrophil­endothelial cell recognition. It initiates neutrophil migration from the blood to the site of action in the connective tissue (see pages 279­280). The subendothelial layer of connective tissue in larger elastic arteries consists of connective tissue with both collagen and elastic fibers. It is contractile and secretes extracellular ground substance as well as collagen and elastic fibers. The internal elastic membrane in elastic arteries is not conspicuous because it is one of many elastic layers in the wall of the vessel. It is usually identified only because it is the innermost elastic layer of the arterial wall. Endothelial cells participate in the structural and functional integrity of the vascular wall. Endothelial cells not only provide a physical barrier between the circulating blood and the subendothelial tissues but also produce vasoactive agents that cause constriction and relaxation of underlying vascular smooth muscles. Multiple roles and functions of the endothelium lining of blood vessels are described in detail at the beginning of this chapter (see pages 413­416). The cells are elongated with their long axis parallel to the direction of blood flow. Scanning electron micrograph of a small vein, showing the cells of the endothelial lining. Note the spindle shape with the long axis of the cells running parallel to the vessel. Hypertension is often associated with atherosclerotic vascular disease and with an increased risk of cardiovascular disorders such as stroke and angina pectoris. In most cases of hypertension, the luminal diameter of small muscular arteries and arterioles is reduced, which leads to increased vascular resistance. Restriction in the luminal size may also result from active contraction of smooth muscle in the vessel wall, an increase in the amount of smooth muscle in the wall, or both. In fat-fed animals, hypertension accelerates the rate of lipid accumulation in vessel walls. In the absence of a fatty diet, hypertension increases the rate of intimal thickening that occurs naturally with age. Cardiac muscle is also affected by chronic hypertension that leads to pressure overload, resulting in compensatory left ventricular hypertrophy. Ventricular hypertrophy in this condition is caused by an increased diameter (not length) of cardiac muscle cells with characteristic enlarged and rectangular nuclei. Left ventricular hypertrophy is a common manifestation of hypertensive heart disease.

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Cartilage is an avascular structure; therefore erectile dysfunction doctors in charleston sc discount kamagra gold online, the composition of the extracellular matrix is essential for diffusion of substances between chondrocytes and blood vessels in the surrounding connective tissue. There are three major types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage. Chondrocytes are distributed either singularly or in clusters called isogenous groups. Extracellular matrix surrounding individual chondrocytes (capsular matrix) or the isogenous group (territorial matrix) varies in collagen content and staining properties. The interterritorial matrix surrounds the territorial cartilage is produced by chondrocytes and appears glassy. Hyaluronan molecules interact with a large number of aggrecan molecules to form large proteoglycan matrix and occupies the space between isogenous groups. It is not present on the free, or articular, surfaces of articular cartilage in synovial joints. Hyaline cartilage is a key tissue in the development of the fetal skeleton (endochondral ossification) and in most growing bones (epiphyseal growth plates). Fibrocartilage is typically present in intervertebral discs, the pubic symphysis, insertion of tendons, and structures within certain joints. In addition, ground substance contains larger amounts of versican than aggrecan molecules. Repair mostly (forms new cartilage at the surface of an existing cartilage) and interstitial growth (forms new cartilage by mitotic division of chondrocytes within an existing cartilage mass). In the aging process, hyaline cartilage is prone to calcification and is replaced by bone. All collagen molecules interact with each other in a three-dimensional felt-like arrangement. The matrix is highly hydrated-more than 60% of its net weight consists of water, most of which is bound to proteoglycan aggregates (aggrecan monomers bound to a long hyaluronan molecule). Hyaline cartilage is found in the adult as the structural framework for the larynx, trachea, and bronchi; it is found on the articular ends of the ribs and on the surfaces of synovial joints. In addition, hyaline cartilage constitutes much of the fetal skeleton and plays an important role in the growth of most bones. At most sites in the body, except for synovial joint surfaces, hyaline cartilage is surrounded by dense irregular connective tissue called the perichondrium. Hyaline cartilage displays both appositional growth, the addition of new cartilage at its surface by chondroblasts, and interstitial growth, the division and differentiation of chondrocytes within its extracellular matrix. The newly divided cells produce new cartilage matrix, thus expanding the volume of the cartilage from inside. Therefore, the overall growth of cartilage results from the interstitial secretion of new matrix by chondrocytes and by the appositional secretion of matrix by newly differentiated chondroblasts. This micrograph reveals hyaline cartilage from the trachea as seen in a routinely prepared specimen. The cartilage appears as an avascular expanse of matrix material and a population of cells called chondrocytes (Ch). The chondrocytes produce the matrix; the space each chondrocyte occupies is called a lacuna (L). Surrounding the cartilage and in immediate apposition to it is a cover of connective tissue, the perichondrium (P). The perichondrium serves as a source of new chondrocytes during appositional growth of the cartilage. Often, the perichondrium reveals two distinctive layers: an outer, more fibrous layer and an inner, more cellular layer. The inner, more cellular layer, containing chondroblasts and chondroprogenitor cells, provides for external growth. Cartilage matrix contains collagenous fibrils masked by ground substance in which they are embedded; thus, the fibrils are not evident. The matrix also contains, among other components, sulfated glycosaminoglycans that exhibit basophilia with hematoxylin or other basic dyes.

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Taste is a chemical sensation in which various chemicals elicit stimuli from neuroepithelial cells of taste buds common causes erectile dysfunction purchase kamagra gold 100 mg with amex. Taste is characterized as a chemical sensation in which various tastants (taste-stimulating substances) contained in food or beverages interact with taste receptors located at the apical surface of the neuroepithelial cells. These cells react to five basic stimuli: sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami [Jap. The molecular action of tastants can involve opening and passing through ion channels. Stimulation of bitter, sweet, and umami receptors activates G protein­coupled taste receptors that belong to T1R and T2R chemosensory receptor families. In addition to those associated with the papillae, taste buds are also present on the glossopalatine arch, the soft palate, the posterior surface of the epiglottis, and the posterior wall of the pharynx down to the level of the cricoid cartilage. Bitter, sweet, and umami tastes are detected by a variety of receptor proteins encoded by the two taste receptor genes (T1R and T2R). Each receptor represents a single transmembrane protein coupled to its own G protein. Depolarization of the plasma membrane causes voltage-gated Ca2 channels in neuroepithelial cells to open. In contrast to the bitter taste receptors, they have two protein subunits, T1R2 and T1R3. Umami taste receptors are very similar to sweet receptors; bitter taste receptor T1R2 T1R3 they are also composed of two subunits. The transduction process is identical to that described previously for bitter taste pathways. Monosodium glutamate, added to many foods to enhance their taste (and the main ingredient of soy sauce), stimulates the umami receptors. Sodium ions and hydrogen protons, which are responsible for salty and sour taste, respectively, act directly on ion channels. Digestive System I Signaling mechanisms, in the case of sour and salty tastes, are similar to other signaling mechanisms found in synapses and neuromuscular junctions. This diagram shows the signaling mechanism of bitter, sweet, and umami receptors in the neuroepithelial cells. These cells selectively express only one class of receptor proteins; for simplicity, all three taste receptors are depicted in the apical cell membrane. Signaling mechanism in sour sensation is generated by H protons that primarily block K channels. Salty sensation derives from Na ions that enter the neuroepithelial cells through the amiloride-sensitive Na channels. Intracellular Na causes a depolarization of membrane and activation of additional voltage-sensitive Na and Ca2 channels. Calcium-mediated release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles results in stimulating gustatory nerve fiber. Salty taste that is stimulated by table salt (NaCl) is essentially derived from the taste of the sodium ions. The Na enters the neuroepithelial cells through the specific amiloride-sensitive Na channels (the same that are involved in sour taste transmission). These channels are different from voltage-sensitive Na channels that generate action potentials in nerve or muscle cells. The entry of Na into a receptor cell causes a depolarization of its membrane and activation of additional voltage-sensitive Na channels and voltage-sensitive Ca2 channels. Vascular and glandular innervation is provided by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. These cells belong to postsynaptic parasympathetic neurons and are destined for the minor salivary glands within the tongue. The cell bodies of sympathetic postsynaptic neurons are located in the superior cervical ganglion.

Syndromes

• Genetic testing
• Endoscopy -- camera down the throat to see burns in the esophagus and the stomach
• Hypoparathyroidism
• Give your child acetaminophen or ibuprofen about 30 minutes before takeoff or landing.
• Lanolin
• Hereditary ovalocystosis
• Violence or war
• Arthritis in most joints, which along with excess bone growth may put pressure on the nerves of the spine or the spinal cord   

The proteins contained in the peroxisome lumen and membrane are synthesized on cytoplasmic ribosomes and imported into the peroxisome impotence husband quality 100 mg kamagra gold. A protein destined for peroxisomes must have a peroxisomal targeting signal attached to its carboxy-terminus. Although abundant in liver and kidney cells, peroxisomes are also found in most other cells. The number of peroxisomes present in a cell increases in response to diet, drugs, and hormonal stimulation. In most animals, but not humans, peroxisomes also contain urate oxidase (uricase), which often appears as a characteristic crystalloid inclusion (nucleoid). Various human metabolic disorders are caused by the inability to import peroxisomal proteins into the organelle because of a faulty peroxisomal targeting signal or its receptor. In the most common inherited disease related to nonfunctional peroxisomes, Zellweger syndrome, which leads to early death, peroxisomes lose their ability to function because of a lack of necessary enzymes. The disorder is caused by a mutation in the gene encoding the receptor for the peroxisome targeting signal that does not recognize the signal Ser-Lys-Leu at the carboxy-terminus of enzymes directed to peroxisomes. Microtubules are also present in cilia and flagella, where they form the axoneme and its anchoring basal body; in centrioles and the mitotic spindle; and in elongating processes of the cell, such as those in growing axons. Microtubules create a system of connections within the cell, frequently compared with railroad tracks originating from the grand central station, along which vesicular movement occurs. On the left, the diagram depicts the process of polymerization of tubulin dimers during microtubule assembly. The minus end of the microtubule contains a ring of -tubulin, which is necessary for microtubule nucleation. On the right is a diagram showing that each microtubule contains 13 tubulin dimers within its cross-section. The wall of the microtubule is approximately 5 nm thick and consists of 13 circularly arrayed globular dimeric tubulin molecules. The dimers polymerize in an end-to-end fashion, head to tail, with the molecule of one dimer bound to the molecule of the next dimer in a repeating pattern. Longitudinal contacts between dimers link them into a linear structure called a protofilament. A small, 1- m segment of microtubule contains approximately 16,000 tubulin dimers. The most simplistic model used in the past described microtubule assembly as a process of adding tubulin dimers one by one onto the growing end of a fully formed microtubule. As a result of this polymerization pattern, microtubules are polar structures because all of the dimers in each protofilament have the same orientation. The growing end of microtubules corresponds to -tubulin and extends the cell periphery. Tubulin dimers dissociate from microtubules in the steady state, which adds a pool of free tubulin dimers to the cytoplasm. This pool is in equilibrium with the polymerized tubulin in the microtubules; therefore, polymerization and depolymerization are in equilibrium. The equilibrium can be shifted in the direction of depolymerization by exposing the cell or isolated microtubules to low temperatures or high pressure. Repeated exposure to alternating low and high temperature is the basis of the purification technique for tubulin and microtubules. The length of microtubules changes dynamically as tubulin dimers are added or removed in a process of dynamic instability. Microtubules are dynamic structures involved in the constant remodeling process known as dynamic instability. Note the arrangement of tubulin dimers in a single protofilament highlighted in pink. The process of switching from a growing to a shrinking microtubule is often called a microtubule catastrophe. The chameleon then retracts its tongue back into its mouth and repeats this process until it is successful in obtaining food.

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